Three Guineas Essay Example

Three Guineas Paper ‘Three Guineas’ by Virginia Woolf and ‘Testament of Youth’ by Vera Brittain Virginia Woolf and Vera Brittain are feminist writers who opposed war and military operation fighting for global peace and happiness. Their writings reflect anti-war ideas, views and possible solution to the problems, and appeal to readers though vivid images and emotional narration. Thesis On the other hand, Woolf and Brittain agree that education of women is the main source of resistance to war; on the other hand, they differ in their views on women’s role in international organizations and their political role as anti-war agents. Pacifism is the main theme which runs though both works. During World War I, an extreme masculine ideal of the intrepid combat-ready patriot, prepared not only to kill but to die for his country, held sway in the minds of many young men and in the population at large, despite pockets of resistance to this view. ‘Three Guineas’ is written as a series of letters devoted to different war problems and political issues. Woolf suggests ways and methods on how to prevent war and organize women in a strong political movement. She explains that feminism is a strong force which could help to stop military operations and oppose violence. She states that those who volunteer and the vast majority of those who are drafted are trained in military camps to accept a militarist ethos that hold that power and status come by subduing and controlling others. ‘Testament of Youth’ is an autobiographical work of Vera Brittain which portrays hardship and grievances faced by the author. At the beginning of the novel, Vera plans to enter the Oxford University and marry Roland Leighton. Unfortunately, the war begins and her brother Edward and Roland are commissioned. We will write a custom essay sample on Three Guineas specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Three Guineas specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Three Guineas specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer During WWI, Vera works as a nurse in a Voluntary Aid Department. After the war, she returns to Oxford but experience great emotional distress caused by war and deaths of her brother Edward and Roland. Both authors portray that because of their personal decision to reject soldiering, many World War I objectors experience extraordinarily brutal conditions under military authority. A number of memoirs attest to the strength of purpose that most objectors exemplified in light of such savage treatment and reveal the high price they paid for their stand. Both authors see war as a tremendous evil which ruins life and happiness of their families and children. The main difference between Woolf and Brittain is their approaches to anti-war movements and techniques used to oppose the war. Woolf supposes that women can enter international system taking an active part in public life and international agencies. Woolf describes that women’s league can help to prevent war playing an active role in international affairs and politics. Woolf (2003) writes â€Å"the main distinction between us who are outside society and you who are inside society must be that whereas you will make use of the means provided by your position—leagues, conferences, campaigns, great names, and all such public measures as your wealth and political influence place within your reach—we, remaining outside, will experiment not with public means in public but with private means in private†. Woolf state that women should be convinced that the creation of a new set of values about manliness, one that incorporated the ideal of a nonviolent New Man, constituted important peace work. They hoped that the future ability of the state to prosecute war would be compromised by their disruptive voices and actions. In contrast to Woolf, Brittain expresses the idea of medical assistance of women during the war. Brittain works in a Voluntary Aid Department during the war and describes her experience as: â€Å"I managed to extract approval from most of the nurses, †¦ I seized with avidity upon all the unpleasant tasks of which they were only too glad to be relieved, and took a masochistic delight in emptying bed-pans, washing greasy cups and spoons, and disposing of odoriferous dressings in the sink-room† (Brittain 1989 p. 34).

Free Essays on Facts Of Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson 1. Thomas Jefferson was born at Shadwell, his father’s Virginia plantation, April 13, 1743. (Brown, David xii 12) 2. Thomas Jefferson attends The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia in 1760. (Brown, David xiii 13) 3. Thomas Jefferson started to study law in Williamsburg for five years in 1762. (Watts, Franklin 26-30) 4. Thomas Jefferson began to build his home, Monticello, at the mountaintop with land that he inherited by his father. (Miller 21-22) 5. Thomas Jefferson was elected to the House of Burgesses in 1768. (Brown xiii 13) 6. Thomas Jefferson Martha Wayles Skelton in 1772. (Schmittroth, Linda and Rosteck, Kay 250) 7. Thomas Jefferson writes a summary view of The Rights of British America in 1774. (Watts 51) 2 8. Thomas Jefferson was a member of the Committee of Correspondence in Virginia in 1774. (www.HistoryChannel.com) 9. Thomas Jefferson was elected to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1775, which was adjourned in 1776. (Miller 1) 10. Thomas Jefferson writes The Declaration of Independence in 1776. (Brown 243) 11. Thomas Jefferson was appointed governor of Virginia in 1779. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 249) 12. Martha Jefferson dies in 1782 along with three of six children. (Watts 86) 13. Dolley Madison served as his first lady in the White House. (www.HistoryChannel.com) 14. Thomas Jefferson accepted an appointment by Congress to serve at the peace commission in Paris, France, to work on a Treaty to end the Revolutionary War. (Miller 86-87) 15. Thomas Jefferson serves as a minister to France from 1785-1789. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 249) 16. Thomas Jefferson becomes the first US secretary of state in 1790. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 251) 17. Thomas Jefferson resigns as secretary of state in 1793. (Brown 245) 3 18. Thomas Jefferson was elected vice president of the United States in 1796. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 252) 19. Thomas Jefferson was the first inaugu... Free Essays on Facts Of Thomas Jefferson Free Essays on Facts Of Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson 1. Thomas Jefferson was born at Shadwell, his father’s Virginia plantation, April 13, 1743. (Brown, David xii 12) 2. Thomas Jefferson attends The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia in 1760. (Brown, David xiii 13) 3. Thomas Jefferson started to study law in Williamsburg for five years in 1762. (Watts, Franklin 26-30) 4. Thomas Jefferson began to build his home, Monticello, at the mountaintop with land that he inherited by his father. (Miller 21-22) 5. Thomas Jefferson was elected to the House of Burgesses in 1768. (Brown xiii 13) 6. Thomas Jefferson Martha Wayles Skelton in 1772. (Schmittroth, Linda and Rosteck, Kay 250) 7. Thomas Jefferson writes a summary view of The Rights of British America in 1774. (Watts 51) 2 8. Thomas Jefferson was a member of the Committee of Correspondence in Virginia in 1774. (www.HistoryChannel.com) 9. Thomas Jefferson was elected to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1775, which was adjourned in 1776. (Miller 1) 10. Thomas Jefferson writes The Declaration of Independence in 1776. (Brown 243) 11. Thomas Jefferson was appointed governor of Virginia in 1779. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 249) 12. Martha Jefferson dies in 1782 along with three of six children. (Watts 86) 13. Dolley Madison served as his first lady in the White House. (www.HistoryChannel.com) 14. Thomas Jefferson accepted an appointment by Congress to serve at the peace commission in Paris, France, to work on a Treaty to end the Revolutionary War. (Miller 86-87) 15. Thomas Jefferson serves as a minister to France from 1785-1789. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 249) 16. Thomas Jefferson becomes the first US secretary of state in 1790. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 251) 17. Thomas Jefferson resigns as secretary of state in 1793. (Brown 245) 3 18. Thomas Jefferson was elected vice president of the United States in 1796. (Schmittroth & Rosteck 252) 19. Thomas Jefferson was the first inaugu...

Multiple Births Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Multiple Births - Essay Example An inconsistency during the 2nd trimester between the measured fundal height and gestational age of the fetus usually present a case of twin or multiple pregnancies. Clinical presentation of these pregnancies elicit size of fetus greater than the date by exam, fetal motion not detected until 18-20 weeks, elevated AFP results (Tharpe, 2006). Confirmation of such pregnancies is made through ultrasonographic examination. Complications: Several risks and complications are associated with multiple gestations including early pregnancy loss, low birth weight along with the occurrence of intra-uterine fetal demise, preterm labor and delivery (Levene and Chervenak, 2009). There is an increased prevalence of congenital anomalies in monozygotic twins. Brain anomalies like hydrocephaly and micro-cephaly are found to be associated with multiple pregnancies. Also, risk for intra-partum asphyxia is increased in second born due to frequent fetal mal-presentation leading to traumatic delivery. Risk of maternal morbidity is also enhanced in these pregnancies. Other maternal complications include induced hypertension, gestational diabetes, anemia, urinary tract infections, pre-eclampsia, ante-partum hemorrhage, post-partum hemorrhage and endometriosis (Littleton and Engebreston, 2002). According to Avery et al., (2005) in multiple births increased risk of intra-uterine growth retardation is reported which may be due to unequal sharing of placenta among fetuses. Consequently, usual problems associated with intra-uterine growth retardation like intra-partum asphyxia, polycythemia, hypoglycemia and pulmonary hemorrhage are witnessed. In 5% of the multiple pregnancies, twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome is observed which is due to vascular anastomosis between the circulations of monozygotic twins sharing the same placenta. The transfusions taking place in single direction may render the donor fetus anemic, while the recipient fetus becomes polycythemic. Eventually, either of the twin fetuses may become hydropic due to volume overload or anemia. In some severe cases, the donor twin may expire. Management: Patients with multi-fetal pregnancies are followed closely with ultrasonographic examination to assess fetal growths and development throughout her pregnancy. Patient m ay be hospitalized if she develops signs of preterm labor or other complications. Delivery room management of multiple births requires larger number of trained personal for resuscitation/CPR in case of preterm delivery and availability of blood as multi-fetal pregnancies experience frequent blood loss and may lead to post-partum hemorrhage (Gilstrip et al., 2002). Multiple births offer a challenge to nurses and health paramedics in delivery room. Where majority of multiple pregnancies should be delivered normally a caesarean section is suggested as a preferred mode of delivery (Levene and Chervenak, 2009). For a vaginal delivery, continuous electronic monitoring of the fetal vital signs, tolerance to labor (attained by fetal electronic heart beat monitor) and uterine activity should be done (Cruickshank and Shetty, 2009). Delivery should be done till 40th week of gestation because of increased risk of peri-natal morbidity after the due date. In the labor management of twin gestation prostaglandins or oxytocin can be administered to induce vaginal delivery (Creasy et al., 2004).

Find all Details below Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Find all Details below - Research Paper Example Number of researches have been carried out to understand the role of these factors in the decision making process regarding various business related issues. However, most of these studies fail to provide a proper understanding regarding the effects of these factors in the context of a particular country. This paper includes a proposal of a research that will be conducted in order to gain insight into the role of different micro as well as macro environmental factors that are likely to impact the businesses which are operating in Australia. This research proposal is consisted of the principle aims and objectives of the research. Furthermore, it also includes the literature review, thesis structure as well as the expected outcomes of the actual research that will be carried out in near future. The research is expected to be very useful for the individuals from the both industry and academia as the focus will be on a particular country i.e. Australia. Purpose and Aims The central aim of the research is to identify the major macro and micro economic factors that are capable of influencing a particular organization in Australia. In addition to this another main objective of this research is to find out the ways in which the decision making process regarding the marketing of a particular company or its product or brand can be impacted by these factors. The main focus of the research will be on the strategic marketing decisions of a firm in a sense that how such decisions are impacted by the various environmental factors. The major research questions are properly mentioned below – 1. What are the major micro and macro environmental factors that are capable of impacting the business in Australia? 2. How the macro and micro economic environment of Australia impact the strategic marketing decisions of an organization in the particular country? Literature Review Success or failure of any research is greatly impacted by the theoretical base of it. In order to analyz e the theoretical background, a review of literature is conducted. No research can be said to be a completed one without the proper review of literature. As far as this research is concerned there are several theoretical aspects that will be properly analyzed. Two of the most important aspects in the context of this research are strategic marketing and macro and micro environmental factors. Preliminary study shows that marketing decisions at the strategic level make significant difference. On the other hand there are number of macro environmental factors such as culture, politics, economy, technology, society etc. that may influence the performance of a marketing campaign. Extensive literature regarding strategic marketing as well as several of the above mentioned factors is likely to be available in different books, journals and magazines. These sources can be accessed both online as well as offline. However, investigation regarding the academic theory of these aspects should be ma de limited. Marketing is a vast concept and hence it is not feasible to get into all the aspects of it. In fact, the focus will be on strategic marketing while searching the literature. On the other side, only relevant literature will be searched

Engaging Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Engaging - Term Paper Example Every one of us has free time which we could donate to a Children Hospital ward. The kids to whom we read simple stories and/or expectant mothers whom we advised not to take the drugs that the doctors prescribed to them since they would give birth to children suffering from Neonatal abstience Syndrome may have not shown gratitude, but each boon we gave strengthened the pillars of the world. Even if the expectant mothers did not thank us for our gift, the gift we gave them is upholding the foundation of the universe. Whereas our gift and the beneficiaries should be considered, our reward, once decided on, should be without concern, brimful one minute and over and done the next. Hence, our intention was to dispense charity rather than philanthropy (Timothy 1-25) We live in a world in which, in effect, children at the children hospital ward and/or mothers at the children hospital ward need more charity or the moral equivalent of it are ubiquitous, and thank to the existence of system of organizational aid already in place, we are for all time in the position of being better placed to act to save some of the many individuals whose lives are at stake. The rationale that we hold on to that we are supposed to donate our few hours or minutes to a children hospital ward, though through, generalizes and becomes a standard of beneficence that could be called the principle of sacrifice. However, moral limitation of a deontological of variety might restrict the ethical demands of beneficence. For instance, when we donated our time by visiting the children hospital and helping out the expectant mothers by giving them the advice that they should not take the drugs prescribed to them: we had confined ourselves to circumstances in which whatever ethical r estriction there are did not have a bearing on our circumstance. But the concern was how we were going to use resources we legitimately

Organotin (IV) Compounds: Chemistry, Properties and Uses

Organotin (IV) Compounds: Chemistry, Properties and Uses Introduction 1.1 Tin Element It is undeniably that many research and studies had been done in the field of organotin chemistry for the past half century. Sn which is symbol bared by tin which is called as stannum in Latin. It is placed on group 14 and period 5 in the periodic table with atomic number of 50. It has an electronic configuration of [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p2. The table 1.1 below show properties of tin (Davies, et al., 2008).The chemical properties was shared similarity with germanium and lead. Moreover, tin form compounds which has +2 and +4 as its oxidation number with +4 has slightly higher stability. Hence, formation of tetrahedral tin atoms occur when four valence electrons involved in the sp3 hybridization. Table 1.1: Tin Properties (Davies, et al., 2008) Based on Tin Chemistry: Fundamentals, Frontiers and Application, it was stated that tin has the stable isotopes of ten and also with the highest number of any element in the periodic table of isotopes. Thus, tin exhibit vary characteristic of the mass spectra. From on the table 1.2 shown below, it appear that both isotopes of 117 and 119 with spin of  ½ are used in the Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy (Davies, et al., 2008). Table 1.2: Stable isotopes of Tin (Davies, et al., 2008. p. 3) It is found that metallic tin occur in two states which is ÃŽ ±-tin and ÃŽ ²-tin. The ÃŽ ²-tin exists as distorted cubic structure and function as electric conductor. Whereas, ÃŽ ±-tin is formed when ÃŽ ²-tin is converted slowly at temperature below 10 °C. Besides that, ÃŽ ±-tin exits as a diamond structure which have the properties as a semiconductor. The physical appearances of tin is white and possess inertness at ambient temperature. However, tin will only undergo oxidation to SnO2 at 200 °C since it is a malleable post transition metal (Davies, et al., 2008). 1.2 History of Tin Tin has been discovered around 3500 BC and it is known as an element that strengthen copper by forming copper-tin alloy which actually begin as early as Bronze Age civilization. The tin present in surface of Earth is only approximately 2 ppm which is far lesser compared to zinc, copper and lead. The production of tin mainly from mining and smelting (Davies, 2004). In 1849, gives the birth of the first organotin(IV) compound, diethyltin diiodide synthesized by Edward Frankland which ultimately set as a new era in the field of tin chemistry. Frankland basically studies the behavior of the reaction between ethyl iodide and zinc heated in a sealed tube. It was that time found out that the decomposition of iodide of ethyl is affected by tin at the range of temperature between 150 °C to 200 °C (Davies, 2004). Threfore, his research practically set as a seed for further studies and was further stimulated around 1949 when various application of tin was discovered. Truly structural changes of compounds between the solution and solid states plays a crucial role in the organotin(IV) chemistry and its applications. In early studies of the 60s and 70s, Mà ¶ssbauer spectrosocopy was used to determine the sturcture of the complexes. Nevertheless, it is now been dominantly used with X-ray crstallography and 119Sn NMR due to better technology and resolution (Davies, 2004). 1.3 Preparation of Organotin(IV) Carboxylates Organotin(IV) carboxylates’s formula is RnSn(O2CRËÅ  )4-n . The complexes can be produced by reacting organotin(IV) oxide or hyrdroxide with comparable carboxylic acid. (equation 1.1 to1.3) R3SnOH or (R3Sn)2O + RËÅ  COOHà ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   R3SnOOCRËÅ   + H2O (1.1) R2SnO + 2RËÅ  COOR à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   R2Sn(OOCRËÅ  )2 + H2O (1.2) RSn(O)OH + 3RËÅ  COOH à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   RSN(OOCRËÅ  )3 (1.3) Esterification reaction is accomplished between organotin(IV) oxides or hydroxides and carboxylic acids by azeotrophic dehydration. The above equations’ reactions will depend on the mixing of different mole ratio of acid and base with appropriate solvent. The side products, water was removed by Dean-Stark apparatus and molecular sieve. Furthermore, organotin(IV) carboxylates can be prepared by reacting organotin(IV) chloride with metal carboxylates. (equation 1.4). Meanwhile, when a tin-carbon cleaved with carboxylic acid, it can also produce organotin(IV) carboxylates or cleaved with mercury(I) or mercury (II), or lead (IV) carboxylate as shown below (Davies, 2004). (equation 1.5-1.6) RnSnCI4-n + 4-nRËÅ  COOM à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   RnSn(OOCRËÅ  )4-n + 4-nMCI (1.4) R4Sn + RËÅ  COOHà ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   R3SnOOCRËÅ   +RH (1.5) R4Sn + RËÅ  COOM à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   R3SnOOCRËÅ   +RM (1.6) 1.4Structures of Triorganotin(IV) Complexes Basically the general formula for triorganotin(IV) complexes would be R3SnX and it is widely studied. This is due to the higher biological activity of triorganotin(IV) complexes compared to diorganotin(IV) complexes. The R group highly influence the biocidal activities as it contains three Sn-C whereas their volatility and solubility is affected by the X group (Kizlink, 2001). The toxicity also decreases with a decrease of organic groups bind to the tin atom. However, reviews indicated that X group itself is active biologically and an increased of aqueous solubility will lead to increased of activity (Davies, et al., 2008). Meanwhile, chelation of triorganotin monomer or polymer with a five coordination leads to a decreased of activities (Davies, et al., 2008). 1:1 molar ratio of carboxylic acid and triorganoitn(IV) base are used to prepare triorganotin(IV) complexes (IMTIAZ-UD-DIN and BADSHAH, 2010; Win, 2012). There are two main types of structures possess by triorganotin(IV) complexes which is chain and discrete structures. Figure 1.1 shows frequent occuring stuctures of triorganotin(IV) complexes with different coordination geometries (Hadjikakou and Hadjiliadis, 2009). Figure 1.1: Frequent occurring structures in triorganotin(IV) complexes (A-C) (Hadjikakou and Hadjiliadis, 2009. p. 236) At figure 1.1, complexes A to C falls on the category of discrete structures. It is commonly found that Ar3SnO2CRËÅ   exhibit discrete structures such as triphenyltin carboxylates. Complexes A shows possible dicarboxylate ligand that can form a linear polymer by bridging triorganotin(IV) groups. Complexes B is a structure that closely resemble to trigonal bipyramid containing two equivalent CO bonds with facial alkyl groups whereas complexes C shows tetrahedral geometry with two non-equivalent CO bonds. The axial sites for complexes A to C are all occupied by O-Sn-O electronegative substituents (Davies, et al., 2008). 1.5Tin Application It is undeniably that tin compounds have contributed and played a crucial role in various fields such as its property as an anticancer agent, in vitro anti-bacterial, wood preservatives, pesticides etc (Davies, et al., 2008). The main focus of tin application would be its organotin complexes due to its biologically active compounds in potentially lowering cancerous cells. Therefore, tremendous focus have actually diverted to anti-cancer field though it’s still have a wide applications. Table 1.3Industrial uses of organotin(IV) compounds (Omae, 2002) 1.5.1Agriculture Triorganotin(IV) compounds are proven to be extremely useful in agricultural and industry as they act as fungicides, molluscides, acaricides ,biocides and pesticides based on the research and reviews conducted (Kizlink, 2001; Nath, et al., 2013). For examples, toxicity towards insects and mammals are contributed by trimethyltins whereas Gram-negative bacteria are affected by tri-n-propyltins. In addition, tri-n-butyltin and triphenyltin compounds are effective against fungi. Presence of triorganotins pose as a lethal to mosquitoes and their larvae. Moreover,tributytin chloride act as an strong repellent for rodents in crops. Besides that, snails control is affected by both triphenyltin acetate and triphenyltin chloride as molluscicides. This will help to prevent schistosome infections in human (Piver, 1973). According to Kizlink studies, the presence of n-butyl, phenyl and cyclohexyl groups will greatly increase the biocidal activity (Davies, et al., 2008). Tricyclohexyltin hydroxide and trineophenyltin oxide acts as a acaricides which are used on citrus and vegetable crops though they are not conditioned to resistance environment (Batt, 2006). Whereas triphenyltin(IV) hydroxide and triphenytltin(IV) acetate are used in high value crops when there is potential for the crops to be infected such as early blight, Alternaria solani (GUENTHNER, et al., 2000). Therefore, the common crops used for fungicides are potatoes, pecans etc. With all the advantageous as biocides, ,little did people know that when triorganotin(IV) compunds are capable of adsorbed into the soil. This will eventually lead to contamination of surface water due to runoff (Okoro, et al., 2011). 1.5.2 Anti-cancer Activity In 1965, platinum complexes which is known as cis-diamminedichloroplatinum or cisplatin that characterized anti-proliferative activity has been discovered by Rosenberg (Alama, et al., 2009). Since then, platinum (II) complexes has been used as anti-cancer agent (Lippard and Jamieson, 1999). Regardless of its success, conducted studies has shown that it possess side effects (Langer, et al., 2013). Therefore, a non-platinum metal complexes field has been been prompted to studied with continual investigation of new complexes as antitumor drugs. Besides that, there has been many reviews and studies on organotin carboxylates due to its antitumor potential. Generally, triorganotin(IV) complexes had been widely known to possess superior activity than diorganotin deriavatives (Baul, et al., 2005; Ali, et al., 2011; Yip, et al., 2012). This rules apply to some of the activties and had been recognized as R3SnL > R2SnL2 > RSnL3. Literature had indicated that triphenyltin(IV) complexes have remarkable activty in in vitro antitumor against human mamary tumour (MCF-7) and colon carcinoma (WIDR) (Baul, et al., 2009). It is also reported that the actvity of triphenyltin(IV) complexes are higher than other complexes with p-hydroxybenzoic acids. This is because of the high values of half inhibitory concentration (IC50) lipoxygenase inhibition compared to organitins(IV) and also reference cisplastin. Besides that, the inhibition of lipoxygenase and the activity of anti-proliferative against smooth muscle tumor, a leiomyosarcoma cells are higher for triorganitin(IV) compounds compared to diorganotin(IV) compounds (Nu, Li and Li, 2014). High lipophilic behaviour ,ability to penetrate cell membrane and promotion of binding to biological molecules due to its phenyls group of triorganotin(IV) carboxylates showed high cytotoxic activity further confirms its impressive cytotoxicity in vitro against human lung cell line and human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (Ma, et al., 2014). Furthermore, spontaneous disproportionation reactions in solution may undergone by triorganotin(IV) derivatives into di- and tetraorganotin(IV) derivatives. In the mean time, lost of alkyl or aryl group may happened in in vivo during interception of aromatase enzyme. Therefore, there is possibility to recognize diorganotin(IV) complexes might be the ultimatum of cytotoxic agent and pharmacokinetic considerations in relation to commonly observed triorganotin(IV) compounds’ high activity (Alama, et al., 2009). The organotin carboxylates can be further studied by exploring the ligand of the carboxylic acid, coordination number of the central tin atoms which play a crucial role in determine factor of the anti-tumor activity or cytotoxicity properties (Hadjikakou and Hadjiliadis, 2009; Ding, et al., 2012; Thorpe, et al., 2013). In conclusion, simultaneous in researching leads to potential in discovery in designing new anticancer drugs which will greatly help in our advancement in the medical field. 1.5.3 Antifouling Exploit of trioganotin(IV) compounds can be used as a biocidal agent in anti-fouling paints for ships. In fact, tri-n-butyltin oxide (TBTO) is the first organotin compound to be discover for its properties. The function of anti-fouling systems is to coat and paint ships that acts as protective layer in order to inhibit attachment of Chlamydomas sp. or acorn barnacles. Shipping industry will face a serious problem if marine fouling occur due to increased surface roughness and resistance in water. Therefore, a consumption of 40% of fuel is needed to maintain the normal speed (Omae, 2003). Furthermore, triorganotin(IV) compounds are resistance towards corrosion on aluminum hulls which is why it is favoured. Besides that the ability of tributyltin oxide to mix with pain solvents as a colorless liquid can be used in many biocidal applications. However, tributyltin oxide is highly soluble in seawater and thus giving a short term protection. Whereas, triphenyltin(IV) fluoride has become a common antifungal paint due to its long life protection from algae and shells (Omae, 2003). Even though both tributyltin oxide and triphenyltin(IV) fluoride made a good antifouling paint, studies had shown that they contribute contamination to the aquatic environment (Hartl, 2012). It was suggested that biocides release is caused by high pressure hosing activities in which the paint particles become attached with the sediments and also leaching (Konstantinou and Albanis, 2004) 1.5.4 Wood preservatives It is undeniable that wood is a precious gift from the mother nature and serves as as a wide applicant in the world. Specific wood species are needed for construction due its superior physical, mechanical and aesthetically pleasing performance (Jusoh, 2012). However, not all wood species are durable for outdoor activities. Therefore, organotin(IV) compounds are set as a wood preservatives such as tributyltin(IV) oxide and tributyltin(IV) naphthenate. Based on Kizlink research in year 2000, triorganotin(IV) compounds are found to inhibit the growth of mycelium from wood-destroying fungi Coniophora puteana, Serpula lacrymans and mould suspensions. It is reported that butyl group in n-alkyi chains contained by triorganotin(IV) compounds such as bis(tributyltin) oxide and tributyltin N, N-diethyldithiocarbamate is highly effective against fungi. On the other hand, inhibitory activity of fungicides of triphenyltin(IV) compounds appear to be lower than tributyltin(IV) compounds. This studies indicated and proven that smaller molecular volume of R3Sn have a better establisment to the site of inhibitory action compared to bigger molecular volume. Whereas in the studies of Jusoh, it was suggested that Alstonia schlaris, Macaranga triloba and Hevea brasiliensis were preserved succesfully by organotin(IV) compounds. This results would be further supported by the binding of tin compounds with the wood cell from the FTIR spectra which serves as a preservations of treatability of the specific wood species. 1.5.5 Poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) stabilizers The degradation of poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) or oxygenolysis occur at lower temperature of its processing temperature. Thus, conjugation of double bonds are established and the decomposition will release hydrogen chloride (HCI) which then be reduced by heat stabilizers through absorption (Arkis and Balkose, 2004; Wang, et al., 2014). The stabilizers are composed of mono or di-disubstituted organotin(IV) compounds which usually added to pipes, films and packing materials due to their thermal stability (Nu, Li and Li, 2014). Common PVC stabilizers can be differentiated with their alkyl group of organotins which is methyl, butyl and octyl (Okoro, et al., 2011). Since the toxicity of monoorganotin stabilizers towards mammals are extremely low, they are widely used with an added advantage of low raw material cost. On the other hand, the efficiency of octyltins are lesser due to its lower tin content (Batt, 2006). According to Songwon in 2013 by Tin Intermediates Selection Guide, the examples of organtin(IV) complex used as a heat stabilizers is butyltin(IV) mercaptide, dibutyltin(IV) dilaurate, monobutyltin tris(2-ethylhexanoate) and dioctyltin mercaptide. Tin mercaptides are found to be the most desired due to its high efficiency acting as a weak acid reacting with labile chloride sites on PVC. Besides that, solubility of the stabilizer and lubrication in polymer processing is enhanced by the high molecular weights and ester group in mercaptan ligands (Batt, 2006). 1.6 Other usage of Organotin(IV) compounds Besides organotin(IV) compounds acts as an antibacterial and antifungal agent, it also has mothproofing properties to treated fabrics such as bis(tributyltin) oxide. This is due the advantage of being lacking of color and staining. Staphylococcus aureus, a bacteria found in hospital also can be controlled by chemical bis(tributyltin) oxide (Piver, 1973). Diorganotin(IV) compounds are used as catalysts to in process of forming polyurethane and silicon elastomers (Okoro, et al., 2011). Dibutyltin(IV) compounds such as diibutytin(IV) dilaurate is responsible in controlling tapeworms for poultry such as Raillietina cesticillus. 1.7 Effects of Organotin(IV) compounds Humans are affected by organotins consumption of contaminated food, waters from pipelines of PVC or inhalation from agricultural activities and industry processes. The symptoms includes liver damage, loss of weight and neurological disorder. Birds are affected by their uptake of food in which their body structure, diet and metabolism of butyltin determines the accumulation in their tissues. Tri-n-butyltin oxide will greatly impact the immunological system and hormones activities of the birds. Whereas the entrance of organotins to fishes is through uptake of water from the gills and diet factor. The toxic effects would be on the red blood cells, gills and liver in the presence of tributyltin(IV) compounds(Namiesnik, et al., 2013). Another evidence was proved by studying chronic toxicity of organotin(IV) compounds by observing gastropods as subjects. It was found that gastropods exhibit imposex which can be defined as having male organs such as penis in a female species even with low concentration of tributyltins. This literally means that contamination of organotins greatly affects all biological living species (Omae. 2002) 1.8 Objectives The main objectives of this research is to synthesis (4-amino-3,5-dichlorobenzoato)triphenyltin(IV) from the reaction between 4-amino-3,5-dichlorobenzoic acid with triphenyltin(IV) oxide. The second objective of this research is to study the characterization of the synthesized complexes through determination of melting point, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen elemental analysis, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) as KBR dics, 119Sn, 1H and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Spectroscopy (NMR) with the means of quantitatively and qualitatively. The third objective for this study is to determine the structure and coordination geometry of the tin moiety carboxylates. Molar ratio of the reactants, polarity of solvent, temperature of refluxing etc. will contribute to the effects of coordination number and binding mode of the ligand to the tin atom which will be investigated.

An Analysis of ?The Life and Murder Trial of Xwelas, a S?Klallam Woman :: essays research papers fc

Walking next to his father through the woods on a cool winter day, young Mason hears the sound of a bullet entering his father’s body. As he looks ahead, he sees his mother, Xwelas, lower a shotgun. In the essay The Life and Murder Trial of Xwelas, a S’Klallam Woman, Coll-Peter Thrush and Robert H. Keller, Jr. recall the events before, during, and after the murder of George Phillips, a Welsh immigrant killed by his native wife. Xwelas’ the life before the murder, the actions which provoked Phillips’ death, and how the trial was influenced all help to describe the unusual history that took place in the seventeenth century.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Xwelas’ had an unstable past that may have contributed to the anger toward George Phillips. In the mid-1800’s, there were several reasons that it was important to marry a person of a different race. â€Å"†¦The threat of slavery, depopulation due to disease, and the breakdown of traditional ways, could have encouraged a young Indian woman to seek relative refuge in marriage with a white man, miles from her home (272).† Xwelas married a man named Edmund Clare Fitzhugh, a native of Virginia who practiced law. After giving birth to two sons, Mason a Julius, Edmund found that home life was dull. He suddenly left for Seattle, leaving Xwelas to herself. However, she married William King Lear, an immigrant from Alabama. After bearing his son, Lear abandoned his family after learning that a relative died. He did not return for more than twenty years. Finally, Xwelas found a common laborer, much less of a public figure than her last two husbands. The authors of the essay write: â€Å"†¦As a forty-year-old woman with three children fathered by two different men, Xwelas may have been considered ‘used merchandise’ by potential white suitors and by tribal leaders looking for strategic marriage alliances. Or perhaps there may have been a romantic attraction between Xwelas and [Phillips]. For whatever reasons, Xwelas married George Phillips on 9 February 1878.† (273) Xwelas’ marriage to Phillips seems to have been the worst of her three marriages. Several accounts describe his alcoholism and violent rages. His beatings of Xwelas often drew the attention of neighbors, however, she sometimes tried to fight back, using weapons such as oars. By Christmas of 1878, she was pregnant with her fourth child. The rocky relationship status between Xwelas and George Phillips provoked the fatal events on Christmas Day.

Death, Dying and Other Ethical Dilemmas

Death, dying and other ethical dilemmas are issues that all Intensive Care Units (ICUs) throughout the world have to face and address. In the Current Opinion in Critical Care, Vol 16, No 6, December 2010, p. 640, Dixon-Woods and Bosk, writing on the topic of â€Å"Death, dying and other ethical dilemmas† under the journal’s section of ‘Ethical, legal and organizational issues in the ICU’, have stated that â€Å"Recent ethnographic work suggests that ethical dilemmas associated with end-of-life care in ICU clearly persist, even if clinicians are now more open about patients’ chances of surviving.An Australian study identified how decisions and actions made outside the ICU—such as proceeding with surgical procedures with very poor prognosis or admitting moribund patients who had sustained severe respiratory or cardiac arrest—led to a higher than expected rate of non-booked admissions. Staff believed these to be the result of futile inter ventions by staff outside the ICU that then resulted in ICU staff having to manage the patient and family through the dying process.ICU staff believed that this practice was detrimental to families by offering false hope of recovery, and that they were left to ‘clear up the unfinished work of medical staff’. Other studies have also documented the problems faced by staff confronted by patients whose potential for recovery is, at best, marginal, or when patients’ ‘significant others’ seek to influence ICU priorities and distribution of resources. Tensions exist between the critical care clinician’s view of the ICU as a place for caring for patients who can be salvaged, and an external view of the ICU as a place appropriate to send desperately ill, dying patients.Patients admitted to ICU despite ICU staff’s belief that they are not candidates for intensive care lead to role conflicts and other dilemmas for staff. The conflict is embedded i n whom ICUs serve, the relative ease with which non-ICU clinicians can ‘turf’ their most critical patients to ICUs, the tensions ICU clinicians experience when delivering what they believe to be futile care, and the despair that family and clinicians share when having to abandon hope. †This administrative ethics paper takes a look at the issues contained in the article of the aforementioned journal, Current Opinion in Critical Care, Vol 16, No 6, December 2010, and applies these issues to the situations faced by ICUs today and in particular, the ICU healthcare personnel at the 6-bedded ICU at the San-Fernando General Hospital (SFGH), a general multi-disciplinary 680-bedded hospital situated in the south of the island of Trinidad and which serves a catchment area of 600,000 people. Trinidad and Tobago is a twin-island republic in the West Indies, south of the archipelago with a population of 1. million people. The SFGH also has a 4-bedded HDU (high-dependency unit) . Brainstem death The future plan for brain-dead patients whose hearts have been resuscitated by doctors in the Emergency Department (ED) of the SFGH following a cardiac and or respiratory arrest at home, poses an ethical dilemma for the healthcare personnel at the SFGH. Should these patients be admitted to the ICU which has only six beds to serve a population of 600,000? Shouldn’t these ICU beds be kept for patients with potentially reversible and salvageable pathology?Emergency physicians at the SFGH defend their decision to resuscitate such patients on the grounds that they cannot predict with any certainty which patients have reversible brain function and which do not. The present practice at the SFGH to provide ventilator support for these patients in the ED instead of the ICU while tests of brainstem function are being carried out, is frequently met with severe criticisms from relatives and loved ones who claim that the best is not being, and cannot be, done for such pa tients in the ED as opposed to the ICU.And to a certain extent, this is true bearing in mind the chronic shortage of doctors and nurses in the ED. Frequently therefore, here in Trinidad, the ICU personnel have no choice but to transfer such patients to the ICU for monitoring and cardio-respiratory support. Passive Euthanasia â€Å"While active euthanasia is illegal, passive euthanasia, or allowing a patient to die naturally, is legal everywhere. Passive euthanasia includes withdrawing basic needs such as hydration and nutritional feeding† (Fremgen, 2009, p. 304).The Ministry of Health, an arm of the Government of Trinidad and Tobago, has issued a written protocol/policy for the discontinuation of life-support from patients on whom the diagnosis of brainstem death is confirmed but, for such discontinuation, written consent is required from the relatives. â€Å"The person should be pronounced dead, and there is no need for the permission of the surrogates to cease treatment, a lthough there are still questions about consent for donation† (Garett, Baillie, McGeehan and Garett, 2010, p. 253).But intensivists here in Trinidad face an ethical dilemma because forty-five percent of the population consists of people of East Indian descent who, because of their religious and cultural background, do not readily agree to the discontinuation of ventilator support from their loved ones who have been pronounced brain-dead. For similar reasons, they do not readily agree to the donation of organs while the heart is still beating, a situation that has stymied the development of transplant programs here in Trinidad and Tobago. The Surrogate’s Obligation Patient-physician relationship is at the heart of patient management. The trend over the recent years has been towards promoting patients’ autonomy. This model falls apart, however, when the patient loses decision-making capacity. Surrogacy is one means of preserving patient autonomy. Several European c ountries have recently developed laws defining the physician’s role, as well as patients’ and surrogates’ rights† (Lautrette, Peigne, Watts, Souweine and Azoulay, 2008, p. 714). â€Å"Each of the principles (the best interests principle and the rational choice principle) entails problems.The best interests principle asks the surrogate to do what is nearly impossible—to judge what is best for another. Furthermore, it does not address the fact that the interests of the patient and the interests of the surrogate may be in conflict. The rational choice principle assumes that we know what the patient would have chosen when competent and after having considered every relevant factor. This is a very broad assumption. We doubt that anyone can know what a person would have done in all circumstances† (Garett, Baillie, McGeehan and Garett, 2010, p. 2). When surrogates refuse to give permission for their brain-dead loved ones to be disconnected from the ventilator, intensivists at the SFGH in Trinidad, well aware of the limitations and constraints of the situation that exists at the SFGH, choose the ethical route and not only discontinue all drug and intravenous fluid therapy but also reduce the settings on, and oxygen therapy going to, the ventilator to as low as is possible, so as to satisfy the family that the patient has not been disconnected from the ventilator.A do-not-resuscitate order (DNR) is not only written, but is also verbally communicated to the nurses by the doctors in the event of a cardiac arrest. The Cost Factor â€Å"Critical care medicine is expensive and its high cost has been a concern for many years. † (Halpern, 2009, p. 591). Canada’s health care system, including its delivery of hospital-based critical care services, is changing due to fiscal pressures. â€Å"Critical care services should be delivered to those who can benefit from them.Limiting therapy in patients with a poor prognosis may he lp redirect resources† (Leasa and Sibald, 1997, p. 320). Trinidad and Tobago, like the rest of the world, is currently facing an economic recession and so the Government of the day has to be very prudent in its fiscal spending. The Ministry of Health which is responsible for providing the financial resources for running the health system in the twin-island republic simply does not have the money required for the provision of quality healthcare at this time.ICUs are expensive and as such all attempts must be made by all stakeholders involved in the ICU to ensure that monies spent in this area of the hospital are spent wisely, ethically, effectively and efficiently. Conclusion This administrative ethics paper took a look at various challenges faced by healthcare personnel in ICUs today as they deal with death, dying and other ethical dilemmas. Particular reference was made to the ICU at the San Fernando General Hospital, Trinidad, West Indies.

Types of Fallacies

FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE 1. Appeal to Force If you suppose that terrorizing your opponent is giving him a reason for believing that you are correct, then you are using a scare tactic and reasoning fallaciously. Example: David: My father owns the department store that gives your newspaper fifteen percent of all its advertising revenue, so I’m sure you won’t want to publish any story of my arrest for spray painting the college. Newspaper editor: Yes, David, I see your point. The story really isn’t newsworthy.David has given the editor a financial reason not to publish, but he has not given a relevant reason why the story is not newsworthy. David’s tactics are scaring the editor, but it’s the editor who commits the scare tactic fallacy, not David. David has merely used a scare tactic. This fallacy’s name emphasizes the cause of the fallacy rather than the error itself. 2. Appeal to Pity You commit the fallacy of appeal to emotions when someoneâ₠¬â„¢s appeal to you to accept their claim is accepted merely because the appeal arouses your feelings of anger, fear, grief, love, outrage, pity, pride, sexuality, sympathy, relief, and so forth.Example of appeal to relief from grief: [The speaker knows he is talking to an aggrieved person whose house is worth much more than $100,000. ] You had a great job and didn’t deserve to lose it. I wish I could help somehow. I do have one idea. Now your family needs financial security even more. You need cash. I can help you. Here is a check for $100,000. Just sign this standard sales agreement, and we can skip the realtors and all the headaches they would create at this critical time in your life.There is nothing wrong with using emotions when you argue, but it’s a mistake to use emotions as the key premises or as tools to downplay relevant information. Regarding the fallacy of  appeal to pity, it is proper to pity people who have had misfortunes, but if as the person’ s history instructor you accept Max’s claim that he earned an A on the history quiz because he broke his wrist while playing in your college’s last basketball game, then you’ve committed the fallacy of  appeal to pity. *Appeal to Snobbery 3. Ad HominemYou commit this fallacy if you make an irrelevant attack on the arguer and suggest that this attack undermines the argument itself. It is a form of the  Genetic Fallacy. Example: What she says about Johannes Kepler’s astronomy of the 1600? s must be just so much garbage. Do you realize she’s only fourteen years old? This attack may undermine the arguer’s credibility as a scientific authority, but it does not undermine her reasoning. That reasoning should stand or fall on the scientific evidence, not on the arguer’s age or anything else about her personally.If the fallacious reasoner points out irrelevant circumstances that the reasoner is in, the fallacy is a circumstantial ad homine m. Tu Quoque  and  Two Wrongs Make a Right  are other types of the ad hominem fallacy. The major difficulty with labeling a piece of reasoning as an ad hominem fallacy is deciding whether the personal attack is relevant. For example, attacks on a person for their actually immoral sexual conduct are irrelevant to the quality of their mathematical reasoning, but they are relevant to arguments promoting the person for a leadership position in the church.Unfortunately, many attacks are not so easy to classify, such as an attack pointing out that the candidate for church leadership, while in the tenth grade, intentionally tripped a fellow student and broke his collar bone. *Ad Hominem Circumstantial Guilt by association is a version of the  ad hominem  fallacy in which a person is said to be guilty of error because of the group he or she associates with. The fallacy occurs when we unfairly try to change the issue to be about the speaker’s circumstances rather than about the speaker’s actual argument. Also called â€Å"Ad Hominem, Circumstantial. Example: Secretary of State Dean Acheson is too soft on communism, as you can see by his inviting so many fuzzy-headed liberals to his White House cocktail parties. Has any evidence been presented here that Acheson’s actions are inappropriate in regards to communism? This sort of reasoning is an example of McCarthyism, the technique of smearing liberal Democrats that was so effectively used by the late Senator Joe McCarthy in the early 1950s. In fact, Acheson was strongly anti-communist and the architect of President Truman’s firm policy of containing Soviet power. 4. Appeal to the PeopleIf you suggest too strongly that someone’s claim or argument is correct simply because it’s what most everyone believes, then you’ve committed the fallacy of appeal to the people. Similarly, if you suggest too strongly that someone’s claim or argument is mistaken simply beca use it’s not what most everyone believes, then you’ve also committed the fallacy. Agreement with popular opinion is not necessarily a reliable sign of truth, and deviation from popular opinion is not necessarily a reliable sign of error, but if you assume it is and do so with enthusiasm, then you’re guilty of committing this fallacy.It is essentially the same as the fallacies of ad numerum, appeal to the gallery, appeal to the masses, argument from popularity, argumentum ad populum, common practice, mob appeal, past practice, peer pressure, traditional wisdom. The â€Å"too strongly† mentioned above is important in the description of the fallacy because what most everyone believes is, for that reason, somewhat likely to be true, all things considered. However, the fallacy occurs when this degree of support is overestimated. Example: You should turn to channel 6. It’s the most watched channel this year.This is fallacious because of its implicitly ac cepting the questionable premise that the most watched channel this year is, for that reason alone, the best channel for you. If you stress the idea of appealing to a  new  idea of the gallery, masses, mob, peers, people, and so forth, then it is a bandwagon fallacy. *Bandwagon If you suggest that someone’s claim is correct simply because it’s what most everyone is coming to believe, then you’re committing the bandwagon fallacy. Get up here with us on the wagon where the band is playing, and go where we go, and don’t think too much about the reasons.The Latin term for this fallacy of appeal to novelty is Argumentum ad Novitatem. Example: [Advertisement] More and more people are buying sports utility vehicles. Isn’t it time you bought one, too? [You commit the fallacy if you buy the vehicle solely because of this advertisement. ] Like its close cousin, the fallacy of appeal to the people, the bandwagon fallacy needs to be carefully distinguished from properly defending a claim by pointing out that many people have studied the claim and have come to a reasoned conclusion that it is correct.What most everyone believes is likely to be true, all things considered, and if one defends a claim on those grounds, this is not a fallacious inference. What is fallacious is to be swept up by the excitement of a new idea or new fad and to unquestionably give it too high a degree of your belief solely on the grounds of its new popularity, perhaps thinking simply that ‘new is better. ’ The key ingredient that is missing from a bandwagon fallacy is knowledge that an item is popular because of its high quality. Appeal to Past People (â€Å"You too†) 5. Accident We often arrive at a generalization but don’t or can’t list all the exceptions. When we reason with the generalization as if it has no exceptions, we commit the fallacy of accident. This fallacy is sometimes called the â€Å"fallacy of sweeping gene ralization. † Example: People should keep their promises, right? I loaned Dwayne my knife, and he said he’d return it. Now he is refusing to give it back, but I need it right now to slash up my neighbors who disrespected me.People should keep their promises, but there are exceptions to this generaliztion as in this case of the psychopath who wants Dwayne to keep his promise to return the knife. 6. Straw Man You commit the straw man fallacy whenever you attribute an easily refuted position to your opponent, one that the opponent wouldn’t endorse, and then proceed to attack the easily refuted position (the straw man) believing you have undermined the opponent’s actual position. If the misrepresentation is on purpose, then the straw man fallacy is caused by lying.Example (a debate before the city council): Opponent: Because of the killing and suffering of Indians that followed Columbus’s discovery of America, the City of Berkeley should declare that Co lumbus Day will no longer be observed in our city. Speaker: This is ridiculous, fellow members of the city council. It’s not true that everybody who ever came to America from another country somehow oppressed the Indians. I say we should continue to observe Columbus Day, and vote down this resolution that will make the City of Berkeley the laughing stock of the nation.The speaker has twisted what his opponent said; the opponent never said, nor even indirectly suggested, that everybody who ever came to America from another country somehow oppressed the Indians. The critical thinker will respond to the fallacy by saying, â€Å"Let’s get back to the original issue of whether we have a good reason to discontinue observing Columbus Day. † 7. Missing the Point The conclusion that is drawn is irrelevant to the premises; it misses the point. Example: In court, Thompson testifies that the defendant is a honorable person, who wouldn’t harm a flea.The defense attorn ey commits the fallacy by rising to say that Thompson’s testimony shows once again that his client was not near the murder scene. The testimony of Thompson may be relevant to a request for leniency, but it is irrelevant to any claim about the defendant not being near the murder scene. 8. Red Herring A red herring is a smelly fish that would distract even a bloodhound. It is also a digression that leads the reasoner off the track of considering only relevant information. Example: Will the new tax in Senate Bill 47 unfairly hurt business?One of the provisions of the bill is that the tax is higher for large employers (fifty or more employees) as opposed to small employers (six to forty-nine employees). To decide on the fairness of the bill, we must first determine whether employees who work for large employers have better working conditions than employees who work for small employers. Bringing up the issue of working conditions is the red herring. FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION 9. Beg ging the Question A form of  circular reasoning  in which a conclusion is derived from premises that presuppose the conclusion.Normally, the point of good reasoning is to start out at one place and end up somewhere new, namely having reached the goal of increasing the degree of reasonable belief in the conclusion. The point is to make progress, but in cases of begging the question there is no progress. Example: â€Å"Women have rights,† said the Bullfighters Association president. â€Å"But women shouldn’t fight bulls because a bullfighter is and should be a man. † The president is saying basically that women shouldn’t fight bulls because women shouldn’t fight bulls. This reasoning isn’t making any progress.Insofar as the conclusion of a deductively valid argument is â€Å"contained† in the premises from which it is deduced, this containing might seem to be a case of presupposing, and thus any deductively valid argument might seem to be begging the question. It is still an open question among logicians as to why some deductively valid arguments are considered to be begging the question and others are not. Some logicians suggest that, in informal reasoning with a deductively valid argument, if the conclusion is psychologically new insofar as the premises are concerned, then the argument isn’t an example of the fallacy.Other logicians suggest that we need to look instead to surrounding circumstances, not to the psychology of the reasoner, in order to assess the quality of the argument. For example, we need to look to the reasons that the reasoner used to accept the premises. Was the premise justified on the basis of accepting the conclusion? A third group of logicians say that, in deciding whether the fallacy is committed, we need more. We must determine whether any premise that is key to deducing the conclusion is adopted rather blindly or instead is a reasonable assumption made by someone accepting th eir burden of proof.The premise would here be termed reasonable if the arguer could defend it independently of accepting the conclusion that is at issue. 10. Complex Question You commit this fallacy when you frame a question so that some controversial presupposition is made by the wording of the question. Example: [Reporter's question] Mr. President: Are you going to continue your policy of wasting taxpayer’s money on missile defense? The question unfairly presumes the controversial claim that the policy really is a waste of money. The fallacy of complex question is a form of begging the question. 11. False DichotomyA reasoner who unfairly presents too few choices and then implies that a choice must be made among this short menu of choices commits the false dilemma fallacy, as does the person who accepts this faulty reasoning. Example: I want to go to Scotland from London. I overheard McTaggart say there are two roads to Scotland from London: the high road and the low road. I expect the high road would be too risky because it’s through the hills and that means dangerous curves. But it’s raining now, so both roads are probably slippery. I don’t like either choice, but I guess I should take the low road and be safer.This would be fine reasoning is you were limited to only two roads, but you’ve falsely gotten yourself into a dilemma with such reasoning. There are many other ways to get to Scotland. Don’t limit yourself to these two choices. You can take other roads, or go by boat or train or airplane. The fallacy is called the â€Å"False Dichotomy Fallacy† when the unfair menu contains only two choices. Think of the unpleasant choice between the two as being a charging bull. By demanding other choices beyond those on the unfairly limited menu, you thereby â€Å"go between the horns† of the dilemma, and are not gored. 12. Suppressed EvidenceIntentionally failing to use information suspected of being relevant and significant is committing the fallacy of suppressed evidence. This fallacy usually occurs when the information counts against one’s own conclusion. Perhaps the arguer is not mentioning that experts have recently objected to one of his premises. The fallacy is a kind of fallacy of  Selective Attention. Example: Buying the Cray Mac 11 computer for our company was the right thing to do. It meets our company’s needs; it runs the programs we want it to run; it will be delivered quickly; and it costs much less than what we had budgeted.This appears to be a good argument, but you’d change your assessment of the argument if you learned the speaker has intentionally suppressed the relevant evidence that the company’s Cray Mac 11 was purchased from his brother-in-law at a 30 percent higher price than it could have been purchased elsewhere, and if you learned that a recent unbiased analysis of ten comparable computers placed the Cray Mac 11 near the bottom of the list. FALLACIES OF WEAK INDUCTION 13. Appeal to Ignorance The fallacy of appeal to ignorance comes in two forms: (1) Not knowing that a certain statement is true is taken to be a proof that it is false. 2) Not knowing that a statement is false is taken to be a proof that it is true. The fallacy occurs in cases where absence of evidence is not good enough evidence of absence. The fallacy uses an unjustified attempt to shift the burden of proof. The fallacy is also called â€Å"Argument from Ignorance. † Example: Nobody has ever proved to me there’s a God, so I know there is no God. This kind of reasoning is generally fallacious. It would be proper reasoning only if the proof attempts were quite thorough, and it were the case that if God did exist, then there would be a discoverable proof of this.Another common example of the fallacy involves ignorance of a future event: People have been complaining about the danger of Xs ever since they were invented, but thereâ₠¬â„¢s never been any big problem with them, so there’s nothing to worry about. 14. Appeal to Unqualified Authority You appeal to authority if you back up your reasoning by saying that it is supported by what some authority says on the subject. Most reasoning of this kind is not fallacious, and much of our knowledge properly comes from listening to authorities.However, appealing to authority as a reason to believe something  is  fallacious whenever the authority appealed to is not really an authority in this particular subject, when the authority cannot be trusted to tell the truth, when authorities disagree on this subject (except for the occasional lone wolf), when the reasoner misquotes the authority, and so forth. Although spotting a fallacious appeal to authority often requires some background knowledge about the subject or the authority, in brief it can be said that it is fallacious to accept the words of a supposed authority when we should be suspicious of the autho rity’s words.Example: The moon is covered with dust because the president of our neighborhood association said so. This is a fallacious appeal to authority because, although the president is an authority on many neighborhood matters, you are given no reason to believe the president is an authority on the composition of the moon. It would be better to appeal to some astronomer or geologist. A TV commercial that gives you a testimonial from a famous film star who wears a Wilson watch and that suggests you, too, should wear that brand of watch is committing a fallacious appeal to authority.The film star is an authority on how to act, not on which watch is best for you. 15. Hasty Generalization A hasty generalization is a fallacy of  jumping to conclusions  in which the conclusion is a generalization. See also  Biased Statistics. Example: I’ve met two people in Nicaragua so far, and they were both nice to me. So, all people I will meet in Nicaragua will be nice to me . In any hasty generalization the key error is to overestimate the strength of an argument that is based on too small a sample for the implied confidence level or error margin.In this argument about Nicaragua, using the word â€Å"all† in the conclusion implies zero error margin. With zero error margin you’d need to sample every single person in Nicaragua, not just two people. 16. False Cause Improperly concluding that one thing is a cause of another. The Fallacy of Non Causa Pro Causa is another name for this fallacy. Its four principal kinds are the  Post Hoc Fallacy, the Fallacy of  Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc,  the  Regression  Fallacy, and the Fallacy of  Reversing Causation. Example: My psychic adviser says to expect bad things when Mars is aligned with Jupiter. Tomorrow Mars will be aligned with Jupiter.So, if a dog were to bite me tomorrow, it would be because of the alignment of Mars with Jupiter. 17. Slippery Slope Suppose someone claims that a firs t step (in a chain of causes and effects, or a chain of reasoning) will probably lead to a second step that in turn will probably lead to another step and so on until a final step ends in trouble. If the likelihood of the trouble occurring is exaggerated, the slippery slope fallacy is committed. Example: Mom: Those look like bags under your eyes. Are you getting enough sleep? Jeff: I had a test and stayed up late studying. Mom: You didn’t take any drugs, did you?Jeff: Just caffeine in my coffee, like I always do. Mom: Jeff! You know what happens when people take drugs! Pretty soon the caffeine won’t be strong enough. Then you will take something stronger, maybe someone’s diet pill. Then, something even stronger. Eventually, you will be doing cocaine. Then you will be a crack addict! So, don’t drink that coffee. The form of a slippery slope fallacy looks like this: A leads to B. B leads to C. C leads to D. †¦ Z leads to HELL. We don’t want to g o to HELL. So, don’t take that first step A. 18. Weak Analogy The problem is that the items in the analogy are too dissimilar.When reasoning by analogy, the fallacy occurs when the analogy is irrelevant or very weak or when there is a more relevant disanalogy. See also  Faulty Comparison. Example: The book  Investing for Dummies  really helped me understand my finances better. The bookChess for Dummies  was written by the same author, was published by the same press, and costs about the same amount. So, this chess book would probably help me understand my finances, too. FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY 19. Accent The accent fallacy is a fallacy of ambiguity due to the different ways a word is emphasized or accented.Example: A member of Congress is asked by a reporter if she is in favor of the President’s new missile defense system, and she responds, â€Å"I’m in favor of a missile defense system that effectively defends America. † With an emphasis on the wo rd â€Å"favor,† her response is likely to  favor  the President’s missile defense system. With an emphasis, instead, on the words â€Å"effectively defends,† her remark is likely to be  againstthe President’s missile defense system. And by using neither emphasis, she can later claim that her response was on either side of the issue.Aristotle’s version of the fallacy of accent allowed only a shift in which syllable is accented within a word. 20. Amphiboly This is an error due to taking a grammatically ambiguous phrase in two different ways during the reasoning. Example: In a cartoon, two elephants are driving their car down the road in India. They say, â€Å"We’d better not get out here,† as they pass a sign saying: ELEPHANTS PLEASE STAY IN YOUR CAR Upon one interpretation of the grammar, the pronoun â€Å"YOUR† refers to the elephants in the car, but on another it refers to those humans who are driving cars in the vicini ty.Unlike  equivocation, which is due to multiple meanings of a phrase, amphiboly is due to syntactic ambiguity, ambiguity caused by multiple ways of understanding the grammar of the phrase. 21. Equivocation Equivocation is the illegitimate switching of the meaning of a term during the reasoning. Example: Brad is a nobody, but since nobody is perfect, Brad must be perfect, too. The term â€Å"nobody† changes its meaning without warning in the passage. So does the term â€Å"political jokes† in this joke: I don’t approve of political jokes. I’ve seen too many of them get elected. FALLACIES OF GRAMMATICAL ANALOGY 22.Composition The composition fallacy occurs when someone mistakenly assumes that a characteristic of some or all the individuals in a group is also a characteristic of the group itself, the group â€Å"composed† of those members. It is the converse of the  division  fallacy. Example: Each human cell is very lightweight, so a human be ing composed of cells is also very lightweight. 23. Division Merely because a group as a whole has a characteristic, it often doesn’t follow that individuals in the group have that characteristic. If you suppose that it does follow, when it doesn’t, you commit the fallacy of division.It is the converse of the  composition  fallacy. Example: Joshua’s soccer team is the best in the division because it had an undefeated season and shared the division title, so Joshua, who is their goalie, must be the best goalie in the division. 24. Figure of Speech or Parallel-word Construction A fallacy characterized by ambiguities due to the fact that different words in Greek (and in Latin) may have different cases or genders even though the case endings or gender endings are the same. Since this is not widespread in other languages or since it coincides with other fallacies (e. g. quivocation, see above) writers tend to interpret it very broadly. Examples: â€Å"Activists have been labeled as idealists, sadists, anarchists, communists, and just about any name that can come to mind ending in  -ist, like  samok-ist, saba-ist, bad-ist,  and of course, who could forgetdevil-ist? † (The writer has the unsaid argument that any name ending in  -ist  is viewed as â€Å"trouble-makers† by our society. ) An introductory book on philosophy has an appendix entitle â€Å"List of Isms† the proceeds to list the schools of thought in philosophy. (Not all words that end in  -ism  is a school of thought: take for example,  syllogism. )

The contributions to science by Charles Darwin Essays

The contributions to science by Charles Darwin Essays The contributions to science by Charles Darwin Essay The contributions to science by Charles Darwin Essay 214087 Title: The part to science by a scientist of your pick. 3000 words How does this part map to the scientific discipline course of study? How does the work of the scientist demonstrate the scientific method, or is it a antagonistic illustration? How can the work being discussed be used to turn to citizenship issues in schools? This paper discusses the part to science made by the English scientist Charles Darwin, ( 1809-1882 ) , writer ofThe Origin of Species( 1859 ) , the conceiver of the Theory of Natural Selection or Evolution. It examines the mode in which the work of Darwin could be related into the bing scientific discipline course of study, sing his work as an example of the scientific method. It besides sets out to associate the scientific finds and rules involved to other facets of the school course of study, particularly in the country of citizenship. The combative nature of Darwin’s discovery’ in his ain clip illustrates the fact that there is a common involvement in the subject: we are, in a sense, stakeholders in scientific facts and methods, since they help to find the form of our day-to-day lives. As the House of Lords points out, .this is non confined to scientists ; it extends to those who make policy, whether public or commercial, on the footing of scientific chances and ad vice. Policy-makers will happen it difficult to win public support .on any issue with a scientific discipline constituent, unless the populace s attitudes and values are recognised, respected and weighed in the balance along with the scientific and other factors.’ ( House of Lords, 2000, para 2.66 ) . Despite its age, Darwin’s theory continues to be debated, and can inform us about the importance of experimental accomplishments and scientific unity. It besides provides case in points for the manner scientific discipline and society interact, which may be utile in our society. As the Royal Society observes, It is therefore non swear in scientific disciplineper Sewhich is of concern but the velocity of scientific and technological development, the utilizations to which scientific discipline is put, and the ability of regulative and institutional constructions to maintain gait with this change.’ ( Royal Society, 2004, p.13 ) . Darwin’s work brought him ill f ame, but besides contention and personal sulfuric acid. ( See illustrations ) . This is where the nexus between scientific discipline and citizenship can be made. How does this part map to the scientific discipline course of study? As a 2002 Report by House of Lords acknowledges, The foundations of an involvement in scientific discipline are laid at primary school, between the ages of 5 and 11.’ ( House of Lords, parity. 6.3 ) The rule benefit which could be obtained through the work of Darwin is a general handiness, which would itself enable scholars to prosecute with the course of study. As Meadows points out, Much of knowledge and larning depends on placing the relevant cognition that the scholar already has in bing memory so that this cognition can be used as a starting point for larning what is new. Having no get downing point†¦will shackle acquisition and reasoning†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ ( Meadows, 2006: p.112 ) . A assortment of governments and analysts have noted there that are go oning conceptual jobs in the manner scholars, and the wider community engage with scientific discipline. These are attributable to a assortment of factors. Qualitative ( i.e. phenomenological ) research commissioned jointl y by the DTI and the Wellcome Trust revealed public support for the thought that Science makes our lives change excessively fast.’ ( Wellcome Trust, 2000, p.23 ) Beyond this seemingly simple image there lay a more complex image, with differentiated degrees of apprehension and involvement claimed for different countries of scientific discipline. Environmental concerns, wellness issues and median finds held the greatest involvement for 82-91 per cent of respondents, whilst new engineering was considered more interesting by 74 per cent. Merely 48 per cent of those questioned claimed that energy issues were the most important for them. ( Wellcome Trust 2000: p.21 ) The same research besides discovered that it was possible to categorize respondents into different groups, determined by their involvement in scientific discipline, and the grade of trust they felt in scientific discipline and scientists. Correspondingly, topics characterised themselves as confident believers’ a t the terminal of the continuum most engaged with scientific discipline, to supporters’ half manner along the graduated table, right down to those who stated that scientific discipline was not for them’ . ( Wellcome 2000: pp.5-7 ) Correspondingly, there are several overlapping benefits which could be obtained through an expanded usage of Darwin’s work. First, an enhanced apprehension of scientific method, secondly, an improved consciousness of the operation of natural Torahs, and thirdly, the agencies by which research consequences are validated, interpreted and shared. The benefits of this could get down to be felt even at the Primary stage, as Peacock et.al. argue, Primary scientific discipline is possibly best regarded†¦as an rational, practical, originative and societal enterprise which seeks to assist kids to better understand and do sense of the universe in which they live†¦ ( and ) †¦should affect kids in thought and working in peculiar ways in the chase of dependable knowledge.’ ( Peacock et al. , 2007: p.1 ) . It is in this manner that a strict reading of the general rules established by Darwin might be really good, in turn overing and disputing pre-conceived thoughts abou t individuality and value, such as those frequently attributed to the alleged hidden curriculum.’ As Bishop and Simpson point out, The force per unit areas of the concealed course of study are besides present with respect to construction. The kids themselves can be really forceful in structuring scientific discipline activities with preconceived societal frameworks.’ ( Bishop and Simpson, 1995: p.7 ) . In thematic footings, Darwin’s work is exhaustively supportive of theKnowledge, Skills and Understandingcomponent of the scientific discipline course of study, i.e., Ideas and grounds in Science, Investigative Skills,and subordinate subjects such as planning and showing grounds. By the clip pupils reach Key Stage 3, these accomplishments are being further developed under the headers ofPractical and Enquiry Skills, Critical Understanding of Evidence,andCommunication.In practical footings, rules developed from Darwin’s theory could be incorporated into the scientific discipline course of study every bit early as unit 1A,Ourselves,and so continued on through cardinal Stage 2 inLife Processes and Living Things.Within the latter, it would be of import to concentrate on sub-unit 4,Variation and Classification,and 5,Populating Thingss in Their Environment, observing how living beings vary and alteration harmonizing to their context. This subject could be carried on development ally in the context of Key Stage Three, which incorporates two extremely relevant faculties,Organisms, Behaviour and Health,andThe Environment, Earth and Universe.Traveling off from the formal course of study, Darwin’s theory could assist by developing the foundations of causal logical thinking and besides job resolution, lending to a general betterment in scientific discipline criterions overall, across all units of survey. How does the work of the scientist demonstrate the scientific method, or is it a antagonistic illustration? From an educational and scientific position, Darwin’s work is interesting because it is based extensively on observation and tax write-off, instead than extended or quotable physical experimentation. Because of the tremendous timescales involved in the evolutionary procedures which preoccupied Darwin, it is in consequence, impossible to turn out, in absolute footings, whether the theory is right or non. The theory still has its disparagers, and direct oppositions, who object to it on ideological or theological evidences. Despite this nevertheless, it has become a by and large accepted scientific rule. Darwin’s work is hence, in one sense, the purest look of the scientific method, particularly since it was formulated in a vacuity of worthwhile ancestors, and an ambiance of considerable ideological resistance. The lone possible manner in which his work might be deemed a counter example’ is the mode in which it ran straight contrary to much mainstream scientific tho ught amongst his coevalss. However, it decidedly was a find madebecause of– instead thanin malice of– scientific method. Basically, what Darwin did was to suggest an reading of events, extrapolated from a huge sum of biological and geological grounds: he so formulated a specific reading of causality which, in his analysis, had merely one possible scientific result. It is this sort of experimental theoretical account, based on causality, which can tap into the learner’s innate cognitive ability, even from the youngest age. As Meadows observes of children’s interpretive perceptual experience, †¦By the beginning of school old ages, it follows basic causal rules, for illustration that causes precede effects instead than following effects, that they covary with their effects – the consequence on a regular basis and predictably appears after the cause and does non look without it, and the cause and consequence are close, or at least linked, in clip and space.’ . ( Meadows, 2006: p.109 ) How can the work being discussed be used to turn to citizenship issues in schools? As Rose and Rose indicate, it has ever been possible to take the position that, scientific discipline appears to progress in a more or less ordered mode, irrespective of the predominating societal environment in which it is performed.’ ( Rose and Rose, 1970, p.241 ) The power of Darwin’s work lays in its ability to bridge the spread between scientific discipline and the community, and it is here that his relevancy to issues of citizenship may be found. Darwin’s part to science every bit mirrored to a great extent by the manner his work reinforced other countries of academic, philosophical and societal survey: all of this makes it straight relevant to citizenship issues. As Wallace points out, A reading of theOrigin†¦do it hard to asseverate that Darwin’s head was devoid’ of economic and doctrine. A more sustainable decision is that it was permeated by rules of political economic system and doctrine in the signifier of a linguistic communicati on which did non distinguish between the political and the biological.’ ( Wallace 1995: p.11 ) In other words, Darwin’s work was implicitly bound up with the values of his host society: it is this which makes it an ideal nexus between scientific discipline and citizenship. The lone contrast is that we move from a Victorian context, to a present twenty-four hours one. This, it may be argued, has possible benefits for scientific discipline, instruction, and society likewise. As the Royal Society concluded with respect to the current scientific discipline course of study, many pupils lacked enthusiasm for . the topic, and felt frustrated by a content-heavy course of study which gave them small room to research controversial and ethical issues that might involvement them.’ ( Royal Society, 2004, p.21 ) Darwin’s work, it may be argued, is absolutely adapted to ease the latter: it is non distant, or obscure, and on certain degrees it is extremely accessible. The links between scientific discipline and citizenship manifest themselves in assorted ways. First, there is the whole issue of public apprehension of, and trust in scientific discipline. As Meadows points out, †¦understanding cause builds up into what has been called a naive physics’ , a coherent set of impressions about how objects behave ; if this gives rise to the formation and testing of hypotheses by observation and experiment, it becomes the footing for a natural philosophy which is scientific instead than naive.’ ( Meadows, 2006: p.109 ) . Darwin’s work Teachs us that it is non merely the observation of a phenomena, but the cultural capacity to absorb its significance, which is of import. Scientific affairs are non the distinct concern of the scientific community itself, but spill over into the political domain and finally concern us all. This is particularly true when ethical issues become involved, as they progressively tend to make in the biologi cal and life-sciences, impacting everything from the air we breathe, the nutrient we eat, the wellness intervention we can anticipate, and even the grade of control we might hold in finding the wellness, gender, and character of our kids. The of import point here is that attitudes vary, from a profound misgiving, to an about myopic religion in scientific discipline. As the House of Lords observed, neither place is wholly valid, a state of affairs it attributes sqaurely to schools. In common idiom, scientific is about synonymous with certain . This perceptual experience, which is likely picked up at school, is virtually true of much old and well-established scientific cognition. In many of the countries of current concern, from clime alteration to malignant neoplastic disease, it is nevertheless really broad of the mark.’ ( House of Lords, 2000, parity. 4.1 ) It is non the fallibility of scientific discipline which is utile from a citizenship point of position, but instead the necessity of keeping an unfastened head and capacity for nonsubjective argument. It is besides of import to retrieve that we all portion a corporate duty for the manner that society is conducted, and the mode in which scientific matter are run on our behalf. Again, this is non a distant or academic argument, and at its most intense, can show the relevancy of scientific method in our mundane lives. As the Royal Society points out, modern-day crises such as that created by BSE illustrates this. BSE highlighted profound concerns about the scientific discipline advice procedure and the function of scientists and authorities functionaries, the effectivity policy devising and action within sections such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, the ability of Curates to both gage and communicate hazard efficaciously, and basically the relationship between scientific discipline and politics.’ ( Royal Society, 2004, p.17 ) If we take the Key Stage Three Citizenship course of study as an illustration, the continued relevancy of Darwin’s thoughts becomes evident. In the domain of political, legal and human rights, we must take history of the DFES counsel that every kid is A alone kid .every kid is a competent scholar from birth who can be resilient, capable, confident and self assured. ( DFES, 2007: p.5 ) . The kernel of Darwin’s idea is that all people are descended from the same ultimate beginning, and hence equality before the jurisprudence, and of political rights, is a requirement of an just society and civil civil order. This in bend leads into the rules of democracy and the thought everyone should hold a voice in finding the legislative behavior of authorities. The importance of keeping freedom of address and leting a diverseness of positions are besides indispensable to the rules of citizenship as enshrined in the course of study. It is of import to retrieve that, without these installations, Darwin’s scientific thoughts might neer hold received public attending. In Section 2,Key Processes,the KS3 Citizenship course of study requires that scholars †¦engage with and reflect on different thoughts, sentiments, beliefs and values when researching topical and controversial issues and problems.’ ( QCA 2007: p.30 ) . Darwin knew that printing his thoughts about development in Victorian society would pull ferocious resistance from many quarters, because of its disagreement with scriptural instructions about the Creation. This resistance was likely to be immoveable and immune to logic: As Hull points out, those †¦who rejected evolutionary theory chiefly for theological reasons†¦would non hold been able to accept it even if all the grounds had been overpoweringly in its favor – which it was not.’ ( Hull 1974: p.450 ) . Similarly, his right to debate his theories with opposition s and critics formed an of import portion of the manner in which he basically changed attitudes, manner beyond the strictly scientific sphere. As Darwin himself wrote of one of his counter-theorists, He will be dead against me, as you prophesied†¦but he is liberally civil to me personally. On his criterion of cogent evidence,naturalscientific discipline would neer come on, for without the devising of theories I am convinced there would be no observation.’ ( Hull 1974: p.229 ) . As can be seen from this, it should be possible, in a tolerant and progressive society, to show and discourse opposed positions in a sensible manner: the freedom to make this, and finding to protect such freedoms, are of import dogmas of modern-day citizenship. As the Key Stage Three citizenship course of study puts it, responsible citizens should be able to †¦communicate an statement, taking history of different point of views and pulling on what they have learnt through research, action and debate†¦justify their statement, giving grounds to seek to carry others to believe once more, alteration or support them.’ ( QCA 2007: p.30 ) . In modern-day UK society, responsible citizenship besides requires us to understand diverseness of civilizations and individualities, and that motion of people, either temporarily or for good, is an intrinsic characteristic of our society and economic system. This is to the full reflected in the citizenship course of study, which states that scholars should recognize †¦the hanging nature of UK society, including the diverseness of thoughts, beliefs, civilizations, individualities, traditions, positions and values that are shared.’ ( QCA 2007: p.33 ) Darwin’s theory of natural choice is supportive of such positions in a assortment of ways. By learning us that we all have common beginnings, his believing undermines any thoughts of intrinsic racial difference, or any barriers erected around such thoughts. Since we all developed from the same biological beginning, there can be no justification for valuing any single otherwise: in other words, constructs of biological d eterminism’ are invalidated. Furthermore, any effort to make so can, by Darwin’s instruction, at one time be revealed as arbitrary, subjective and unscientific. There are obvious cross-curricular links to be made here, both historically and in footings of modern-day societies, where such conditions still endure. Children are natural perceivers of the phenomenon around them, and Darwin’s thoughts are deeply supportive of this. Meadows points out that kids †¦appear to pull illations about the causes of events they see, to know apart between self-caused and other-caused motion, to categorise living things that are agents as different from inanimate objects.’ ( Meadows, 2006: p.109 ) . Bing citizens besides accrues us the duty to alter things for the better: correspondingly, although we have rights in society, we have a responsibility to guarantee that such rights are exercised responsibly, without encroaching on the rights of others. Darwin’s the ory besides taught us that we are, as societal histrions, wholly mutualist upon each other. Bibliography Amigon, D. , and Wallace, J. , ( 1995 ) ,Charles Darwin’s the Origin of Species: new Interdisciplinary essays.: Manchester University Press, Manchester. Anderson, R.D. , ( 1992 ) ,Universities and Elites in Britain since 1800,MacMillan, Basingstoke. Bishop, A. , and Simpson, R. , ( 1995 ) , Strategies for Structured Play in Science in the Nursery’ ,Primary Teaching Studies,Autumn, Vol.9, No.3, pp.5-8. Burgess, R.G. , ( 1989 ) ,The Ethical motives of Educational Research,Falmer Press, Lewes. The Children’s Plan: Building Brighter Futures, ( 2007 ) , Department for Children, Schools and Families. HMSO, London. DeFalco, J. , Trade-Offs, Risks and Regulations in Science and Technology: Deductions for STS Education.’ , in Kamur, D.D. , and Chubin, D.E. , ( explosive detection systems ) , ( 2000 ) ,Science, Technologyand Society: A Sourcebook on Research and Practice,Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York. DFES, ( 2007 ) ,Practice Guidance for the Early Years Foundation Phase: Puting the Standards for Learning, Development and Care for Children from Birth to Five,HMSO, London. House of Lords,( 2000 )ScienceandTechnology, 3rdReport, downloaded from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199900/ldselect/ldsctech/38/3801.htm Hull, D.L. , ( 1974 ) ,Darwin and his Critics,Harvard University Press, Mass. Kamur, D.D. , and Chubin, D.E. , ( explosive detection systems ) , ( 2000 ) ,Science, Technologyand Society: A Sourcebook on Research and Practice,Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York. Lenton and McNeil, ( 1991 ) , Primary school instructors understanding of the biological constructs in the National Curriculum’ Primary Teaching Studies, Oct. , Vol.6, No.2, pp.196-203. Mackenzie, D. , and Wacjman, J. , ( explosive detection systems ) , ( 1994 ) ,The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator got its Hum,Open University Press, Milton Keynes. Mauther, M. , Birch, M. , Jessop, J. , and Miller, T. , ( 2002 ) ,Ethical motives in Qualitative Research,London, Sage. Meadows, S. , ( 2006 ) ,The Child as Thinker: The Development and Acquisition of Cognition in Childhood,Routledge, London. Pursell, C. , ( 1994 ) ,White Heat,BBC Books, London. QCA, ( 2007 ) ,Citizenship: Program of Study for Key Stage 3 and Attainment Target,QCA. Rose, H. , and Rose, S. , ( 1970 ) ,Science and Society,Penguin, Harmandsworth. The Royal Society, ( 2004 )Excellence in Science: Science in Society,London. Rose, H. , and Rose, S. , ( 1970 ) ,Science and Society,Penguin, Harmandsworth. Scruton, R. , ( 1982 ) ,A Dictionary of Political Thought,MacMillan, London. Science and the Public: A Review of Science Communication and Public Attitudes to Science in Britain, A Joint Report by the Office of Science and Technology and the Wellcome Trust, ( 2000 ) , HMSO, London. Wakeford, T. , and Walters, M. , ( explosive detection systems ) ( 1995 )Science for the Earth: Can Science Make the World a Better Place?John Wiley and Sons, Chichester. Wallace, J. , ( 1995 ) Introduction: trouble and defamiliarisation-language and procedure in theBeginning of Species’, in Amigon, D. , and Wallace, J. , ( 1995 ) ,Charles Darwin’s the Origin of Species: new Interdisciplinary essays.: Manchester University Press, Manchester, pp.1-46. Winner, L. , Do Artefacts Have Politics’ , in Mackenzie, D. , and Wacjman, J. , ( explosive detection systems ) , ( 1994 ) ,The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator got its Hum,Open University Press, Milton Keynes.

Multinational Companies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Multinational Companies - Essay Example The two companies equally believe in being socially, ethically as well as environmentally responsible and accept their duty towards the society, making every effort on their part, to come up with safe products which contribute towards creating prosperity and opportunity for the global citizens. It is not unusual to find out that customers are considered to be the most valued stakeholder by both the companies. Samsung as well as GE strive to deliver first-rate products and services to their customers, while focusing on integrity and excellence simultaneously. Another vital similarity that exists between the companies is with regard to innovation and change. Samsung, with its innovative products ranging from camcorders to refrigerators, considers innovation to be extremely critical for a company’s survival in today’s fast-paced world. On the other hand, GE too, with its vast array of innovations in light bulbs to aircraft engines, has always believed in innovation to be a major factor for a company’s growth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Apart from the similarities, there exist certain definite differences between the two Multinational Corporations. Though both the companies believe in workforce diversity and in hiring the best talent from across the world, GE is more all-encompassing in its view on diversity. GE not only believes in diversity on the basis of nationalities but it also considers diversity on the basis of class, gender, race and community as equally important. As stated in (GE, 2012), GE commits itself to support the Gay, Lesbian.

What is current macroeconomic situation in the U.S Essay

What is current macroeconomic situation in the U.S - Essay Example Over the period of time, the unemployment rates in US averaged just over 5% however, during September 2011, the unemployment rate reached over 9%1 suggesting that despite measures taken by the government, unemployment level is rising. The overall growth rate of GDP has not been encouraging as the growth during the current year has further slowed down due to depressed aggregate demand as well as higher levels of inflation. The overall forecasts for the growth rates during the current year are less than 4% thus suggesting that the economy may further slow down as the growth rates fall and inflation increases. In order to deal with the problem, US government has undertaken a restricted expansionary policy under which fiscal stimulus has been provided to the economy. At the start of the crisis, Bush administration has introduced a tax cut fiscal expansion program to stimulate the economy. After that a further fiscal expansion package was introduced to save the financial system from collapse during 2009 and a further tax cut and unemployment fund extension package was introduced during 2010. (The New York Times, 2011). These attempts suggest that the US government undertook fiscal expansion in order to stimulate the economy and provide the necessary launching pad for the economy to pick up. However, despite such measures, economy has not responded and as such the overall growth rates remained depressed. The monetary policy also remained expansionary in nature wherein FED reduced it policy rate to almost zero. Reduction in discount rate critically reduced the overall interest rates within the economy thus allowing the economy to get stimulus. Low interest rates were also meant to encourage consumer spending on credit so that the overall aggregate demand could be increased. Apart from this, FED also continued with the policy of quantitative easing under which fictitious money was created to increase the